Three Chapters in the Development of Clarendon/ionic typefaces by Mitja Miklavcic

I have found this pdf 'Three Chapters in the Development of Clarendon/ionic typefaces' by Mitja Miklavcic. This really does give you all the information you would ever want to know about this typeface!!!

http://www.typefacedesign.org/resources/essay/MitjaMiclavcic_essay_scr.pdf

Clarendon Research Continued... Type Classification's

Clarendon Research Continued...

I have finally found a bit more information on my font.

From page 104 - 105 from 'The Fundamentals of Typography' by Gavin Ambrose & Paul Harris


Type Classification by Date: The Alexander Lawson type Classification.

'The Alexander Lawson type classification is based on date. The names of many type styles derive from the epoch in which they first appeared, for example Old English, and so this method is closely linked to the development of typograohy. An understanding of this development timeline, as expressed through Lawson's system, can help a designer choose type of a certain period. For example, we may be transported back to the Middle Ages through the use of Blackletter type.

1400's Blackletter: Blackletter typefaces are based on the ornate writing style prevalent during the Middle Ages. Also called Block, Gothic, Old English, Black & Broken.

1475 Old Style: This style refers to Roman fonts created in 15th and 16th century Italy which have slight stroke contrast and an oblique stress. This group includes Venetians and Garaldes.

1500's Italic: Based on Italina handwriting from the Renaissance period, letter forms are more condensed. Originally a seperate type category, they were later developed to accompany Roman forms.

1550 Script: Fonts that attempt to reproduce engraved calligraphic forms.

1750 Transitional: Transitional typefaces are those that marked a divergence from Old Style forms towards more modern forms at the end of the 17th century. Their characteristics include increasing stroke contrast, and greater vertical stress in curved letters.

1775 Modern: Typefaces from mid 18th century with extreme stroke contrast, as typified by the widespread use of hairlines and unbracketed serifs.

1825 Slab Serif - These typefaces have little stroke weight variation and thick, square serifs. For example Clarendon MT.

1900's Sans Serif: Typefaces without serifs and little stroke weights variation first introduced by William Caslon in 1816.

1990's Serif/ Sans Serif: This recent development encompasses typefaces that include both serif and sans serif alphabets such as Rotis.



Classification by type: The Vox System

The Vox system was devised by Maximilien Vox in 1954 to modernise type classification. It has nine divisions and places graphic fonts into a seperate category. It attempted to make a simpler classification system that was detailed enough to be useful.

Humanist: Typefaces inspired by classical and Roman letterforms such as Centaur and Italian Old Style.

Garalde: Old style typefaces from 16th century France and their Italian predecessors, consisting of subtle contrast and steeply angled serifs, such as Bembo and Garamond.

Transitional: Transitional typefaces are those that marked a divergence from Old Style forms towards more modern forms at the end of the 17th century. They feature increasing stroke contrast and greater stress in curved letters such as Baskerville and Fournier.

Didone: Didone is a term that is used in place of 'modern', given that modern types were those created in the 18th century, such as Bodoni.

Slab Serif: Slab - serif typefaces are distinguished by larger, square serifs that were considered to be bolder than those of their predeccessors. Also called Egyptian or Antique.

Lineable: Lineable fonts are sans serif with further divisions of Grotequw, 19th century types, Neo - grotesque and recent versions, such as Univers and Gills Sans.

Glyphic: Fonts with glyph types as Albertus.

Script: Script typefaces are designed to imitate handwritting so that when printed the characters appear to be joined up. As with handwriting, some variations are easier to read than other.

Graphic: Graphic typefaces contain characters that could be considered images in their own right and this category contains the most diverse array of styles. Often designed for specific, themed purposes, they can provide an image connection to the subject matter.

Typeface Anatomy

I found this typeface anatomy in 'The Fundamentals of Typography' which I thought were really handy to know. Here they are;

Apex: The point formed at the top of a character such as 'A', where the left and right strokes meet.

Arm: A horizontal stroke that is open at one or both ends, as seen on the 'T' and 'F' as well as the upstroke on the 'K' and 'Y'. Also called bar.

Ascenders & Descenders: An ascender is the part of a letter that extends above the x-height; a descender falls below the baseline.

Beak: The serif form at the end of an arm.

Bowl: The part of a character that encloses a space in circular letterform such as 'O' and 'e'. The bowl may be closed or open.

Bracket: The transitional shape, connecting the stem and the serif.

Counter: The space inside a bowl as found 'e', 'a' and other letters.

Cross Stroke: A horizontal stroke that intersects the central stem. Also called a crossbar.

Crossbar: The horizontal stroke on the characters 'A', 'H', 'e', 'f' and 't' that intersects the central stem. Also called a cross stroke.

Ear: A small stroke extending from the right side of the bowl of a 'g' or protruding from the stem of letters such as 'r' and 'f'.

Finial: An ornamental terminal stroke at the top of characters such as the 'a' and 'f'.

Leg: The lower, possibly downward sloping stroke of a letter. Sometimes also used for the tail of the 'Q'.

Link: A stroke that joins two other letter parts such as the bowls of a double- storey 'g'.

Loop: The bowl formed by the tail of a double storey 'g'.

Serif: A small stroke at the end of a main vertical or horizontal stroke.

Spine: A left - right curving stroke in the 'S' and 's'.

Spur: The terminal to a stem of a rounded letter.

Stem: The main vertical or diagonal stroke of a letter.

Swash: An elongated curved entry or exit stroke.

Tail: The descending stroke on a 'Q', 'K', and 'R'. The descenders on 'g', 'j', 'q' and 'y' may also be called tails, as can loop of the 'g'.

Terminal: The end of a stroke, which may take several forms such as acute, flared, convex, concave and rounded.

Saul Bass: Graphic Symbolism Quote

I found this quote about Saul Bass in ' Type in Motion; innovations in digital graphics' by Jeff Bellantoni & Matt Woolman, which I thought followed on well from my earlier research.


Graphic Symbolism
'Saul Bass (1920 - 1996) was a pioneer who created vibrant sequences that transformed the function of film titles from pragmatic communication to complete mini-narratives which used metaphor to establish the mood and visual character of a film.

The signature design methodology of Saul Bass embraced the modernist tenet of reduction and enforced an acute attention to pace, rhythm, and detail.'

Kerning & Tracking

Kerning & Tracking

From pages 80 - 81 'Thinking with Type' by Ellen Lupon


Kerning
'If letters in a typeface are spaced too uniformly, they make a pattern that doesn't look uniform enough. Gaps occur, for example, around letters whose forms angle outward or frame an open space (W, Y, V, T, L). Im metal type, a kerned letter extends past the lead slug that supports it, allowing two letters to sit more closely together. In the digital typefaces used today, the space between letters is controlled by a table of Kerning pairs, which specify spaces between different letter combinations.'

Tracking
'Adjusting the overall space between letters, rather than the space between two characters, is called tracking, also known letterspacing. It is common practice to letterspace capitals and small capitals, which appear more regal when standing apart. By slightly expanding the tracking across a body text, the designer can create a more airy field. Negative tracking is rarely desirable. This device should be used sparingly, to adust one or more lines of justified type. Lowercase letters respond less favorably to letterspacing than uppercase letters do, because they are designed to sit together intimately on a line.'

More Mirosław Adamczyk posters

Here are some more examples of Mirosław Adamczyk's work.

50 Spectaular Type and Text Artworks

I found this really good site with some great typography poster on. The article on the website was called 50 Spectaular Type and Text Artworks.
http://www.designzzz.com/spectacular-typography-text-artworks/

Here a few amazing ones;

'John Lennon in Type' by Dencii'












'Freedom, Since When?' by getRainedON

'Death by Typography' by Gcore

'The Hand' by it3m

Serif Fonts Research

Information from 'The Fundamentals of Typography' by Gavin Ambrose & Paul Harris.


Extract from page 86:


"Serifs a key characteristic for identifying a typeface due to the variety of ways in which they have been employed throughout the development of typography. Serifs enhance the readability of a piece of text by helping the eye to advance from one character to the next. Many serif styles reflect the zeitgeist of a particular time, with some more ornate or bolder, while others are more discreet and refined."


The main serif varities are; Unbracketed slab serif, Bracketed slab serif and Bracketed serif.



Unbracketed Slab Serif: A serif without any supporting brackets on TS- heavy slabs. An example would be 'Egiziano Classic Antique Black, which has large slab serifs with no supporting brackets.

Bracketed Slab Serif: The slab serifs are supported by subtle curved brackets. My typeface Clarendon falls under this category and has small arcs that bracket the serifs.

Bracketed Serif: A serif with barely noticeable supporting brackets. An example would be 'Berkeley' as it has small brackets on its serifs, which are of a regular size.

"... Each type if serif lends a font its own personality, typographic traits and design impact - from the robust, muscular quality of an unbracketed slab serif, to the delicate finesse of a hairline serif. Although at times barely noticeable, typographical details such as serifs can alter how a piece of work is perceived. For this reason it is important for designers to bear them in mind and even celebrate subtle differences they can give a job."

'Stop Stealing Sheep & Find Out How Type Works'

'Stop Stealing Sheep & Find Out How Type Works'


By Erik Spiekermann & E.M. Ginger

Page 37:

"Anyone looking at a printed message will be influenced, within a split second of making eye contact with the page: the arrangement of various elements as well as the individual look of each one. In other words, an overall impression is created in our minds before we even start reading the first word. It's similar to the way we respond to a person's presence before we know anything about him or her, and then later find it difficult to revise our first impression.

We read best what we read most, even if it is badly set, badly designed, and badly printed. This is not to suggest there is a substitute for good type, great design, or clean printing, but a reminder of the fact that certain images are deeply ingrained in the reader's mind. Graphic designers, typesetters, editors, printers and other communicators are well advised to be aware of the rules; at other times the rules need to be broken to get the point across. Good designers learn all the rules before they start breaking them."



Page 57:

"You know what its like. It's late at night, your plane leave at 6am, you're still packing. and you just cant decided what to put into that suitcase.

Picking typefaces for a design job is a very similar experience. There are certain typefaces you are familiar with. You know how they will behave under certain circumstances, and you know where they are. On the other hand, there are those fashionable fonts that you've always wanted to use, but you're not quite sure if this job is the right one to experiment on. This is just like choosing which shoes to take on your trip - the comfortable ones are not the height of fashion, but the fashionable ones hurt. You might be able to stand them for a short reception, but not for shopping, let alone for a hike into the countryside.

Before you pick your font suitcase, you need to look at the task ahead. Strike a balance between practicalities and aesthetics - that's what design is all about."

Typography Research - Matthew Carter

Matthew Carter has been described as 'The most important typography designer of our time' which I think is a big title to live up to so I decided to look into what gave him this title. Matthew Carter's work is used by millions of people around the world every day as has spent half his career working with typefaces for use in print which include Miller and Bell Centennial. He has also pioneered design of fonts for use on screen such as Verdana for Microsoft.

Matthew Carter started his long career in type after finishing school, inspired by his father who was a typographer he started working in what was meant to be a temporary job at the Enschedé type foundry at Haarlem in the Netherlands where he learnt how to make type by hand by carving into steel. Carter decided to stay working with type and now he is one of the most successful typographers of our time.

Through the next years Matthew Carter worked hard to go from a type - marker to a type designer he then went to London where at the time no contemporary sans serif type was yet available. Matthew worked with famous typography names including Alan Fletcher, Colin Forbes, Bob Gill, Derek Birdsall and David Collins to produce several sans serif faces, including one for the a terminal at Heathrow Airport.

Matthew went on to design the font Bell Centennial, the typeface commissioned in 1974 by the telecommunications company AT&T, with an outstandingly exacting technical brief, for its telephone directories and which is still in use now.

Interesting interview with Jonathan Barnbrook, Graphic Designer.

Jonathan Barnbrook Graphic designer (1966- ) Friendly Fire 19 June - 10 October 2007

*JONATHAN BARNBROOK is one of the UK’s most active graphic designers. Pioneering the notion of graphic design with a social conscience, Barnbrook makes strong statements about corporate culture, consumerism, war and international politics. Working in both commercial and non-commercial spheres, Barnbrook combines originality, wit, political savvy and bitter irony in equal measures.*

Founding his studio in 1990 and Virus Foundry in 1997, Barnbrook is perhaps best known for his provocatively named fonts, such as Mason (originally released as Manson), Exocet, Bastard, Prozac, Nixon and Drone. The controversy surrounding this work stems from its subversive nature and strong social commentary. Barnbrook multi layers meaning and style – working with language and letterforms in an ingenious way. He uses advertising to reveal anti-corporate messages and exhibitions to promote non-commercial work. With an international presence and local impact, Barnbrook’s work is definitely of the times.
Since graduating in graphic design from Saint Martin’s School of Art and the Royal College of Art in London, Barnbrook has developed a multifaceted practice which includes graphic design, typeface design and motion graphics. He has worked with clients as diverse as Damien Hirst and anti-corporate collective Adbusters.

© Design Museum, 2007



Q. What were your early design influences? What drew you to graphic design?
A. Record covers. I was really into music when I was young. It was a form of rebellion and also a way to relate to the world. Record covers enhance your enjoyment of music, the graphics make the whole experience more meaningful in some way.
Also when I was younger I was always upset about American influence on the creative world. I wanted to look at my own culture, whether it be art, music or typography.

Q. Do you feel that your education (design or otherwise) influenced the way you work now?
A. I went to art school but it was more the spirit of the time that influenced me. However, I am very much a designer that is a product of the London schools (St. Martins, RCA) that I went to. I don't think that is bad thing. I think all design schools should have strong philosophy even if the students choose to reject it in the end.

Q. What were your earliest design commissions?
A. I’ve been designing since the age of thirteen, ever since I won a design competition for the cover of the school magazine. My art teacher really made me a graphic designer. It was an influential win. The prize was a 50p book token. I didn't really know what ‘design’ was but it was something I really enjoyed. It wasn't until I was about 20 I realised that the critical context of graphic design isn’t as simple as ‘get a commission, do the job for the client as best you can’. It's a whole lot more complex than that.
It was actually difficult to survive after I left college. But it’s important not to get deflected from what you really want to achieve.

Q. How do you think design has a social impact?
A. Design shapes the environment. It helps us interact with and perceive the world. In fact, graphic design has always been a method of social change. Throughout history leaders have facilitated social change through the distribution of printed word. It really is that simple.

Q. What are the benefits of polarising your practice, in terms of political and commercial work? How does your political work relate to the rest of your design output?
A. There is not necessarily a divide. Both feed off the other, both are creative areas that influence each other. However it is important to spend time doing non-commercial work. It is good for the creativity of the company. And it works the other way round too. Commercial work can inform non-commercial projects. Our stance has affected the commercial work we take on. We can’t be hypocrites – shout about something and do the opposite.

Q. What is the ideal relationship between designer and client?
A. To like them is quite important and feel happy to be working with them. The client should respect graphic design and not see it simply as a service. It has cultural validity too.

Q. What was your relationship like with Damien Hirst, working on the pop up book?
It was very good, I think he was one of the few artists I have worked with who respected the role of the designer in the process, so he allowed me to be creative, put my mark on the book, it enhanced the expression of the work. Most artists are control freaks who think they know best, which is good in some instances, but with many projects you need to get the best people to do what they are good at, and in this case I think he understood that.

Q. You have worked with music clients, including David Bowie. Do music clients have demands that are very specific to their field?
A. In this age of big record companies the marketing department has too much say. They do research before commissioning a design which often completely defines the solution they want, so it has become a very predictable area. Often the designer doesn’t even work directly with the band. With David Bowie though it was just him, so we had a close relationship. To get a decent design I think you have to work with a band that is so small that they are prepared to take chances or so big that they can tell the record companies exactly what they want.

Q. What is your favourite font and why?
A. The logical answer to that is that there’s no such thing as a favourite font, it depends on the usage. But to answer in completely non-logical way it’s Perpetua by Eric Gill, a British stonecarver and font designer. I like that it comes from absolutely his universe. It is of the time, true to its own surroundings and has his tone of voice. All of these things are very important to me when I design fonts.

Q. Why did you decide to publish the Barnbrook Bible? Why now?
A. It arose out of a desire to explain my work properly. To give people a better understanding of what graphic design can do. We are assaulted with images every day and there is a greater need to understand why they are produced, not just accept them.
I’ve been working on the book for five years now. The publication is timed to coincide with the opening of my exhibition at the Design Museum.

Q. How has your studio evolved over time and what are your plans for the future?
A. I run a small studio on purpose. I don’t want to lose the personal contact between people. Everyone here can say what they feel. It is important to be informal and enjoy daily life.
In the future I’d like to do more film work. Type and film is a relatively new area to explore. And mostly the projects are self motivated. I like writing rather than interpreting other people’s words. Exhibitions and graphics for museums are also an area I’d like to be involved in.
I’m interested in doing more work in Britain. I’ve done lots of projects abroad, but here they’re a bit reluctant. I’m not sure why. Some British institutions are scared of individual design.
The Virus font foundry was set up so that we could make typefaces. It is good for publicity but we don’t worry about the commercial side of things. It has cultural value. It is a bonus if people buy the fonts. And sometimes it is surprising to see how they’re used. It is nice to see the effect of visual language on society.

Q. What is the significance of your exhibition, Friendly Fire?
A. Hopefully it motivates other designers and students to do non-commercial work and to show they can survive not sacrificing their principles. I want to convey that graphic design has something to say and is culturally valid form of expression.

© Design Museum, 2007

Saul Bass

After looking at Polish poster art I though I would look at America for some alternative research into movie posters. I quickly came across a chap called Saul Bass. Saul is a modern graphic designer who was born in New York in 1920 who began to design film posters in the early 1950s and also designed film title designs.

Saul started out as a well praised graphic designed who studied at the Art Students League in New York and Brooklyn College and learnt under Gyorgy Kepes who then went onto work as a freelance graphic designer. Saul opened his own studio in 1950 which is where Preminger asked him to design the poster for his 1954 movie, Carmen Jones. Impressed by the result, Preminger asked Bass to create the film’s title sequence too. Saul Bass went onto deigning the titles for two 1955 movies: Robert Aldrich’s The Big Knife, and Billy Wilder’s The Seven Year Itch.

Saul's talents did not go un-noticed and later in 1955 he designed the opening title sequence for the drugs movie 'The Man with the Golden Arm', before then projectionists would only pull back the curtains in cinemas after the 'boring' title scequence for the start of the movie.

Saul also worked with Alfred Hitchcock in 1958 for his film Vertigo to design Alfred's first title sequence. This involved a close up of a ladies face and zooming in on her eye before the screen spins into a spiral as a bloody colour red soaks the screen. Saul did further work for Hitchcock including 'North by Northwest' in 1959.

Saul Bass' other famous work included 1961’s 'Walk on the Wild Side' and the adrenalin-laced motor racing sequence in 1966’s Grand Prix. This lead Saul onto directing a series of shorts culminating in 1968’s Oscar-winning 'Why Man Creates' and finally realised his ambition to direct a feature with 1974’s 'Phase IV'.

When Saul Bass died the New York Times hailed him as "the minimalist auteur who put a jagged arm in motion in 1955 and created an entire film genre…and elevated it into an art."

Henryk Tomaszewski Newspaper Article I found- Polish Poster School

Henryk Tomaszewski, Leader of the Polish Poster School, Dies at 91

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By STEVEN HELLER
Published: September 14, 2005

Henryk Tomaszewski, whose animated and witty posters for cinema, circus and theater led to the distinctive postwar Polish Poster School style, died on Sunday at his home in Warsaw. He was 91.

Henryk Tomaszewski the cause was a progressive nerve degeneration, which had kept him bedridden for years, said a friend, the graphic designer Krzysztof Lenk, who teaches at the Rhode Island School of Design.Before World War II Polish advertising posters were as graphically startling as any produced in Europe's leading poster capitals - England, France and Germany. But immediately after the war, more somber poster designs appeared that encouraged the reconstruction of a ravaged nation, and soon afterward, the dreary Stalinist aesthetic was injected into most popular art.In this milieu Mr. Tomaszewski (pronounced tom-a-SHEV-ski) introduced a shockingly playful and beguilingly abstract sensibility that characterized the Polish Poster School. This influential stylistic approach dominated the genre for decades, and from the 60's through the 80's it directly influenced cultural and political poster designers in France, England and the United States. In contrast to the turgid Socialist Realism practiced in the Soviet Union and other Eastern bloc countries, the Polish poster of the 50's was stunningly colorful, often humorously surreal and decidedly free of any heavy-handed ideological symbolism. Having survived Nazi occupation, Mr. Tomaszewski, who never joined the Communist Party, simply refused to follow official dictates on art. "Politics is like the weather," he once said, "you have to live with it." His art benefited from this resistance, since he was forced to come up with concealed satiric images in his work. He stayed clear of overtly political issues and focused entirely on designing posters for cultural institutions and events. Henryk Tomaszewski was born in 1914 in Warsaw into a family of musicians. It was expected that he would devote his life to music, but in 1934, against his parents' wishes, he enrolled in the Warsaw Academy of Art as a painting student and graduated in 1939. Influenced by the exiled German satirists Georg Grosz and John Heartfield, Mr. Tomaszewski taught himself graphic design and drew satiric cartoons and caricatures. He soon became a regular contributor to the Polish humor magazine Szpilki and also made scenic designs for theater. During the Nazi occupation he eked out a living while continuing to paint, draw, and make woodcuts, all of which were destroyed during the Warsaw Uprising. In 1947, along with kindred designers, among them Tadeusz Trepkowski and Tadeusz Gronowski, he was hired to produce posters for the state-run film distribution agency, Central Wynajmu Filmow. He and his friends accepted the jobs with the stipulation that their images would not be censored. Severe shortages in Poland made working conditions difficult: bushes and paints were scarce, and printing and paper were inadequate. These limitations made Mr. Tomaszewski rethink the conventions of film posters. Instead of doing glamorous character portraits, he eliminated all reference to stars and replaced them with bold colors and abstract shapes to achieve graphic power.More important, as the poster designer James Victore noted in Print Magazine, "rather than illustrating actual scenes, he suggested the mood of the films by applying filmmaking techniques." This included photographic montage, dramatic perspectives and bizarre cropping. While film directors criticized this approach as being too removed from their vision, Mr. Tomaszewski surprisingly had the backing of the Communist authorities in charge of the movie industry. His posters for the British films "Odd Man Out" and "Black Narcissus" were coyly symbolic illustrations that simply hinted at the films' plots. His posters for the famous Polish Cyrk (circus) combined abstract collage with expressive lettering, rather than standard typeset typefaces, which became something of a personal signature. Even when he made a poster to advertise another artist's exhibition, Mr. Tomaszewski interpreted the content. For example, to announce a 1959 show of Henry Moore's sculptures, he created a veritable sculpture garden from the letters of the artist's name and placed Moore's "Mother and Child" on a pedestal made from the "O" in Moore. But this handling of the subject was not just a flagrant personal conceit; Mr. Tomaszewski succeeded in showcasing the salient features in Moore's work that were akin to his own. The poster historian Alain Weill pointed out that Tomaszewski's "posters evoke a childlike atmosphere whose informality is often reinforced by gauche hand-lettering."From 1952 to 1985 Mr. Tomaszewski was co-director, with Josef Mroszczak, of the Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw, a mecca for design studies, and taught there as well. His Polish students were joined by many designers from England, France and the United States, including members of the 80's French political poster collective Grapus, who were attracted to his expressionistic shorthand and ability to communicate across language barriers. Mr. Tomaszewski usually let art talk to them since he spoke only Polish. After he retired he continued to design posters and draw cartoons until 1996, when nerve degeneration immobilized his legs and took away control of his hands.His work is in various collections, including the Warsaw and Poznan National Museums, the Museum of Modern Art in New York, the Museum of Modern Art in Kanagawa, Japan, and the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam. He is survived by his wife, Teresa Pagowska, a prominent Polish painter; a son, Filip Pagowski, an illustrator, who lives in New York; and a granddaughter.

Ostatni etap (The Last Stage) by Tadeusz Trepkowski

Ostatni etap (The Last Stage) by Tadeusz Trepkowski is a Polish film poster first printed in 1948 size B1.

Tadeusz Trepkowski was a polish graphic designer and was one of the three founders of the Polish School of Posters. He studied at the Graphics Industry School and at the Municipal School of Decorative Art & Painting in Warsaw and began designing posters in 1931. Other famous posters of his include 'Nie' from 1952, 'Zagubione dni' from 1948 and Dusze czarnych from 1953.

Tadeusz Trepkowski is said to have been 'at the forefront of post-war Polish Poster Art'. Sadly he died in 1954 having had produced some of Polands most famous posters.

Modern Polish Poster Art

I need to update this blog with all the polish poster art research I have been doing, so here is a start. I have found a great site today which has loads of ace modern examples from a guy called Mirosław Adamczyk. This is a couple of posters of his dated from the past 1o years. They are awesome!!